Evaluation of Toxoplasma, Rubella, and Cytomegalovirus serological results in women of childbearing age

SUMMARY OBJECTIVE This study aimed to determine the rates of IgG and IgM antibodies against cytomegalovirus, rubella, and Toxoplasma gondii (all of which may cause congenital infections) in women of childbearing age who were admitted to Bolu Abant İzzet Baysal University Training and Research Hospital. METHODS Between January 2015 and December 2017, Toxoplasma gondii, rubella, and cytomegalovirus IgM and IgG antibody levels were studied using the ELISA method (Architect i2000SR, Abbott, Germany) in patients aged 15 to 45 who attended the obstetrics and gynecology outpatient clinics. Toxoplasma gondii and cytomegalovirus IgG avidity levels were analyzed retrospectively. RESULTS A total of 13.470 tests were conducted in the laboratory. Seropositivity percentages of IgM antibodies were found to be 1.3%, 0.5%, and 1.6% for Toxoplasma (n = 3607), rubella (n = 3931), and cytomegalovirus (n = 3795), respectively. The seropositivity percentages of IgG antibodies were 22%, 94.2%, and 98.2% for Toxoplasma (n = 702), rubella (n = 693), and cytomegalovirus (n = 679), respectively. Primary infection (acute, recently acquired) was found in 7 (35%) patients with low Toxoplasma IgG avidity. One (3%) patient with low cytomegalovirus IgG avidity had a primary infection. CONCLUSION Toxoplasma gondii seronegativity was found to be high in the region. Therefore, screening women of childbearing age may be important for the prevention of congenital infections caused by Toxoplasma gondii.

RESUMO OBJETIVO O objetivo deste estudo foi determinar as taxas de anticorpos IgG e IgM contra citomegalovírus, rubéola e Toxoplasma gondii (todos os quais podem causar infecções congênitas) em mulheres em idade fértil que foram admitidas no Hospital de Pesquisa e Treinamento da Universidade Bolu Abant İzzet Baysal. MÉTODOS Entre janeiro de 2015 e dezembro de 2017, os níveis de anticorpos IgG e IgM para Toxoplasma gondii, rubéola e citomegalovírus foram estudados usando o método Elisa (Architect i2000SR, Abbott, Alemanha) em pacientes de 15 a 45 anos que compareceram a ambulatórios de obstetrícia e ginecologia. Os níveis de avidez de IgG para Toxoplasma gondii e citomegalovírus foram analisados retrospectivamente. RESULTADOS Um total de 13.470 testes foram realizados em laboratório. As porcentagens de soropositividade dos anticorpos IgM foram de 1,3%, 0,5% e 1,6% para Toxoplasma (n=3.607), rubéola (n=3.931) e citomegalovírus (n=3.795), respectivamente. As porcentagens de soropositividade dos anticorpos IgG foram 22%, 94,2% e 98,2% para Toxoplasma (n=702), rubéola (n=693) e citomegalovírus (n=679), respectivamente. Infecção primária (aguda, adquirida recentemente) foi encontrada em sete (35%) pacientes com baixa avidez para Toxoplasma IgG. Um (3%) paciente com baixa avidez para citomegalovírus IgG teve uma infecção primária. CONCLUSÃO A soronegatividade do Toxoplasma gondii foi alta na região. Portanto, testar mulheres em idade fértil pode ser importante para a prevenção de infecções congênitas causadas pelo Toxoplasma gondii.

Diagnostic algorithm for the confirmation of cases of measles and rubella in Mexico

Due to the successful implementation of measles and rubella elimination strategies, Mexico announced the interruption of endemic transmission of measles in 1996 and that of rubella in 2008. After a verification process, the region of the Americas was declared free of rubella and congenital rubella syndrome in 2015 and of measles in 2016. In order to maintain the elimination status in Mexico, it is essential to continue laboratory surveillance within the framework of the Global Measles and Rubella Laboratory Network. The Institute of Epidemiological Diagnosis and Reference, through the National Network of Public Health Laboratories, guarantees timely and reliable results in view of the possible reintroduction of these and other emerging pathogens.

Epidemiological profile of 39 cases of microcephaly caused by congenital infections diagnosed in the state of Rio Grande do Sul between 2015-2017

Introduction: Microcephaly is a clinical finding that can arise from congenital anomalies or emerge after childbirth. Maternal infections acquired during pregnancy can result in characteristic brain damage in the newborn (NB), which may be visible even in the fetal stage. To describe the epidemiological profile of newborns with reported microcephaly and diagnosed with congenital infections in the state of Rio Grande do Sul between 2015 and 2017. Methods: A cross-sectional study was carried out on data collected from the Public Health Event Registry as well as from medical records. The investigation included serologies for toxoplasmosis and rubella; polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for Zika virus (ZIKV) in the blood and cytomegalovirus in the urine; non-treponemal tests for syphilis; and brain imaging tests. Results: Of the 257 reported cases of microcephaly, 39 were diagnosed with congenital infections. Severe microcephaly was identified in 13 patients (33.3%) and 51.3% of the cases showed alterations in brain imaging tests. In relation to the diagnosis of congenital infections, three patients (7.7%) were diagnosed with ZIKV, nine (23.1%) with cytomegalovirus, nine (23.1%) with toxoplasmosis, and 18 (46.1%) with congenital syphilis. The three cases of ZIKV showed calcification in brain imaging tests, signs of arthrogryposis, excess occipital skin and irritability, characterizing the typical phenotype of ZIKV infection. Conclusions: Most cases of congenital infection had severe neurological lesions, particularly the cases of ZIKV, which can cause neurodevelopmental delays and sequelae in these infants throughout early childhood.

Inmunidad humoral a tétanos, sarampión y rubéola en niños con leucemia linfoblástica aguda luego del tratamiento quimioterápico / Humoral immunity to tetanus, measles and rubella in children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia after chemotherapy

Los regímenes de quimioterapia y los avances en el soporte clínico han mejorado la supervivencia de los niños con leucemia linfoblástica aguda. Son temas de preocupación las secuelas del tratamiento, entre ellas, el daño inmunológico inducido por la terapia inmunosupresora, que se refleja en la pérdida de niveles protectores de anticuerpos provistos por inmunizaciones previas. Nuestro objetivo fue evaluar la presencia de títulos protectores de anticuerpos para sarampión, rubéola y tétanos en pacientes con leucemia linfoblástica aguda luego de haber finalizado el tratamiento quimioterápico. Se incluyeron 61 niños con leucemia linfoblástica aguda asistidos en el Hospital Garrahan, que habían finalizado el tratamiento, como mínimo, 6 meses antes y con vacunación completa previa al diagnóstico. Las tasas de anticuerpos protectores fueron sarampión: 46% (IC 32-59); tétanos: 53% (IC 40-67); rubéola: 60% (IC 47-63). Estos resultados refuerzan la necesidad de reconsiderar la revacunación en este grupo de pacientes.

Chemotherapy regimens and clinical support advances have improved survival in children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia. The after-effects of treatment are a reason for concern, including damage to the immune system induced by immunosuppressive therapy which is reflected in the loss of antibody protection provided by prior immunizations. Our goal was to assess the presence of measles, rubella, and tetanus protective antibody titers among patients with acute lymphoblastic leukemia after completing chemotherapy. Sixty-one children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia seen at the Hospital Garrahan were included; patients had finished their chemotherapy at least 6 months earlier and had a complete immunization schedule before diagnosis. The rates of protective antibodies were 46% (CI: 32-59) for measles, 53% (CI 40-67) for tetanus, and 60% (CI 47-63) for rubella. These results strengthen the need to reconsider revaccination in this group of patients.

Prevalência de sorologia positiva para HIV, hepatite B, toxoplasmose e rubéola em gestantes do noroeste paranaense / Prevalence of positive sorology for HIV, hepatitis B, toxoplasmosis and rubella in pregnant women from the northwestern region of the state of Paraná

OBJETIVO: Verificar a soroprevalência do vírus da imunodeficiência humana (HIV), hepatite B (VHB), toxoplasmose e rubéola em gestantes do noroeste paranaense. MÉTODOS: Foi realizado um estudo retrospectivo a partir dos resultados de exames sorológicos de triagem no pré-natal de 1.534 pacientes atendidas durante o primeiro semestre de 2010. Foram incluídos somente resultados do primeiro exame de pré-natal e aqueles com pesquisa simultânea de IgG e IgM para toxoplasmose e rubéola. A sorologia foi realizada por enzimaimunoensaio em micropartículas (MEIA). Para análise estatística foi empregado o teste do χ², com nível de significância de 5%. RESULTADOS: A positividade para o HIV foi de 0,3%, a sorologia para VHB pelo marcador HBsAg foi positiva em 0,5% das gestantes, enquanto a reatividade para anticorpos IgM anti-Toxoplasma gondii foi de 1,1% e para IgG de 59%. Em relação à rubéola nenhuma sorologia mostrou positividade para IgM, e para IgG a reatividade foi de 99,6%. A análise dos resultados mostrou que não há associação entre as soroprevalências estudadas e a idade das pacientes, exceto quanto à frequência de IgG anti-T. gondii, que foi mais elevada na faixa etária entre 30 e 44 anos. CONCLUSÃO: A soroprevalência dessas doenças infecciosas em gestantes do noroeste do Paraná é compatível com outras regiões do Brasil.

PURPOSE: To ascertain the seroprevalence of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), hepatitis B (HBV), toxoplasmosis and rubella infections in pregnant women in northwestern Paraná. METHODS: We conducted a retrospective study based on the results of serological screening during prenatal care of 1,534 patients during the first half of 2010. We included only results from the first prenatal exam and with a simultaneous search for IgG and IgM antibodies to rubella and toxoplasmosis. Serology was performed by microparticle enzyme immunoassay (MEIA). Data were analyzed statistically by the χ² test, with the level of significance set at 5%. RESULTS: HIV positivity was 0.3%, positivity of HBV serology (HbsAg) was 0.5%, reactivity to IgM antibodies to Toxoplasma gondii was 1.1%, and reactivity to IgG antibodies was 59.0%. For rubella, no patient was positive for IgM, and IgG reactivity was 99.6%. Data analysis showed no statistical association between seroprevalence and patient age, except for the frequency of anti-T. gondii IgG, which was higher in the 30 to 44 year age group. CONCLUSION: The prevalence of these infectious diseases in pregnant women from northwestern Paraná is comparable to that observed in other regions of Brazil.

Prevalência de anticorpos séricos contra rubéola em doenças autoimunes / Prevalence of rubella serum antibody in autoimmune diseases

INTRODUÇÃO: A associação entre infecções e doenças autoimunes (DAIs) está bem descrita na literatura médica. Vários agentes infecciosos foram implicados como indutores de respostas autoimunes, tais como o parvovírus B19, o vírus Epstein-Barr, o citomegalovírus e os vírus da hepatite. PACIENTES E MÉTODOS: Foram examinamos 1.173 soros de pacientes com 14 doenças autoimunes diferentes e 238 soros de controles saudáveis pareados geograficamente na busca por evidência de infecção rubeólica prévia. Todas as amostras foram testadas para a presença de anticorpos séricos contra rubéola usando-se o sistema Bio-Rad BioPlex 2200. RESULTADOS: Como um grupo, os pacientes com DAIs apresentaram maior prevalência de anticorpos IgM antirrubéola em comparação aos controles saudáveis (11,7% versus 5,4%; P = 0,001). A prevalência de anticorpos IgM antirrubéola foi significativamente maior em 5/14 DAIs, a saber: arterite de células gigantes (33,3%), cirrose biliar primária (24%), síndrome antifosfolipídica (20,6%), polimiosite (16%) e doença intestinal inflamatória (16%). Detectou-se prevalência semelhante de anticorpos IgM antirrubéola nos controles de diferentes países. Detectou-se alta prevalência de anticorpos IgG antirrubéola em pacientes com DAIs (89,9%) e controles. CONCLUSÃO: A prevalência aumentada de anticorpos IgM antirrubéola em DAIs sugere que a rubéola possa desempenhar um papel na etiopatogênese de várias DAIs.

INTRODUCTION: The association between infections and autoimmune diseases (AID) has been well described in the medical literature. Several infectious agents have been implicated as inducers of autoimmune responses, such as Parvovirus B19, Epstein-Barr virus, cytomegalovirus, and hepatitis viruses. PATIENTS AND METHODS: We examined 1,173 sera from patients with 14 different AID and 238 sera from geographically matched healthy controls, for evidence of prior infection with rubella. All samples were tested for the presence of serum antibodies against rubella using the Bio-Rad BioPlex 2200 system. RESULTS: As a group, patients with AID had a higher prevalence of IgM anti-rubella antibodies as compared to healthy controls (11.7% versus 5.4%; P = 0.001). The prevalence of IgM anti-rubella antibodies was significantly higher in 5/14 AID, namely in patients with giant cell arteritis (33.3%), primary biliary cirrhosis (24%), antiphospholipid syndrome (20.6%), polymyositis (16%), and inflammatory bowel disease (16%). A similar prevalence of IgM anti-rubella antibodies was detected among controls from different countries. A high prevalence of IgG anti-rubella antibodies was detected among patients with AID (89.9%) and controls. CONCLUSION: The increased prevalence of IgM anti-rubella antibodies in AID suggests a possible role for rubella in the etiopathogenesis of several AID.

Seroprevalence of measles, mumps, rubella and varicella among staff of a hospital in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia

This study aimed at screening immune status of Health Care Workers [HCWs] against measles, mumps, rubella, and varicella, and assessing the reliability of the history of previous illness due to these infections or vaccination against them as an indicator of the immune status, as checked by laboratory tests. Demographic data, history of previous illnesses and previous vaccinations were collected using a self-administered questionnaire. Also, serologic screening was done for these infections. Antibodies tested using ELISA. Among tested hospital staff, 71.8%, 60.3%, 47.9% and 68.4% reported history of infection or vaccination against measles, mumps, rubella and varicella respectively, while laboratory results proved that 4.5%, 10.8%, 12.9% and 11.3% were susceptible respectively. Susceptibility was most frequent among housekeeping staff against measles and varicella, while administrative staff were the most susceptibles to mumps, and nurses were the most susceptibles to rubella. Sensitivity of past history of illness as an indicator of the immune status, was found to be [85%, 83%, 66%, 86%]; Specificity was [81%, 81%, 89%, 87%]; Positive Predictive value [PV] was [99%, 98%, 98%, 98%] and Negative PV was [16%, 29%, 22%, 39%] for measles, mumps, rubella and varicella respectively. Screening for measles, mumps, rubella and varicella among hospital staff is mandatory to detect those who are susceptible for infections and should be vaccinated, and so preventing transmission of these infections to their colleagues or patients

Prevalence of antibodies against measles, mumps, and rubella before and after vaccination of school-age children with three different triple combined viral vaccines, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, 1996

OBJECTIVE: We evaluated the seroprevalence for measles, mumps, and rubella in school-age children (6-12 years old) before and after the administration of three triple combined viral vaccines. METHODS: In two municipal schools of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, 692 blood samples were collected before vaccination and 636 samples 21 to 30 days after vaccination during 1996. IgG antibody seropositivity was investigated by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (measles and mumps with Enzygnost [Behring, Marburg, Germany]; rubella with Rubenostika [Organon Teknica, Boxtel, the Netherlands]). The vaccines compared were: A: E-Zagreb, L-Zagreb, and Wistar RA 27/3 (Tresivac); B: Moraten, J-Lynn, and Wistar RA 27/3 (M-M-R II); and C: Schwarz, Urabe AM-9, and Wistar RA 27/3 (Trimovax). RESULTS: Before vaccination, 79.2 percent [95 percent confidence interval (CI) = 76.0 percent-82.2 percent] of the samples were positive for measles, 69.4 percent (95 percent CI = 65.8 percent-72.8 percent) for mumps, and 55.4 percent (95 percent CI = 51.6 percent-59.2 percent) for rubella. After vaccination with the A, B, and C vaccines, seropositivity was 100.0 percent, 99.5 percent, and 100.0 percent, respectively for measles; 99.5 percent, 94.5 percent, and 92.0 percent for mumps; and 92.6 percent, 91.3 percent, and 88.6 percent for rubella. CONCLUSIONS: About one-fifth (20.8 percent) of the schoolchildren who could have been vaccinated against measles at age 9 months had levels of antibodies insufficient for protection. In the sample of schoolchildren without previous vaccination against mumps and rubella, high proportions of susceptible levels were found. All vaccines were immunogenic, but vaccine A yielded a seroconversion rate of 99.5 percent for the mumps component, which was significantly higher than the other two vaccines (P < 0.01).

OBJETIVO: Se evaluó la seroprevalencia para sarampión, paperas y rubéola en niños en edad escolar (6-12 años) antes y después de la administración de tres vacunas triples antivirales combinadas. MÉTODOS: Se colectaron 692 muestras de sangre antes de la vacunación y 636 muestras entre 21 y 30 días después de la vacunación a niños de dos escuelas municipales de Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil, durante 1996. Se investigó la seropositividad de anticuerpos de la clase IgG mediante un ensayo de inmunoadsorción enzimática tipo ELISA (sarampión y paperas con Enzygnost [Behring, Marburgo, Alemania] y rubéola con Rubenostika [Organon Teknica, Boxtel, Países Bajos]). Las vacunas comparadas fueron: a) E-Zagreb, L-Zagreb y Wistar RA 27/3 (Tresivac); b) Moraten, J-Lynn y Wistar RA 27/3 (M-M-R II); y c) Schwarz, Urabe AM-9 y Wistar RA 27/3 (Trimovax). RESULTADOS: Antes de la vacunación, 79,2 por ciento (intervalo de confianza [IC] 95 por ciento: 76,0 a 82,2) de las muestras fueron positivas para sarampión, 69,4 por ciento (IC 95 por ciento: 65,8 a 72,8) para paperas y 55,4 por ciento (IC 95 por ciento: 51,6 a 59,2) para rubéola. Después de la vacunación con las vacunas A, B y C, la seropositividad fue de 100 por ciento, 99,5 por ciento y 100 por ciento, respectivamente para sarampión; de 99,5 por ciento, 94,5 por ciento y 92,0 por ciento para paperas; y de 92,6 por ciento, 92,3 por ciento y 88,6 por ciento para rubéola. CONCLUSIONES: Alrededor de un quinto (20,8 por ciento) de los escolares que pudieron haber sido vacunados contra el sarampión a los 9 meses de edad tenían niveles de anticuerpos insuficientes para protegerlos. En la muestra de escolares sin vacunación previa contra paperas y rubéola se encontró una alta proporción de niños susceptibles. Todas las vacunas fueron inmunogénicas, pero la vacuna A produjo una tasa de seroconversión de 99,5 por ciento para el componente de paperas, significativamente mayor que la de las otras dos vacunas (P < 0,01).

Serosurvey of rubella in five blocks of Tamil Nadu.

BACKGROUND & OBJECTIVE: Rubella, normally a mild, self-limiting disease characterized by rash, fever and lymphadenopathy, is a vaccine preventable disease. It carries little morbidity and apparently only minor complications in children. Infection during early pregnancy may lead to congenital rubella infection. Presence of rubella specific IgG in an unvaccinated population is a long term marker of previous rubella infection, which helps to assess the immune status of that population. Though many seroprevalence studies on rebella have been reported earlier from India, no study has been conducted in recent years. We undertook this study in 2003 in five blocks identified by the Integrated Child Development Scheme (ICDS), in the five districts of Tamil Nadu to assess the immune status to rubella in two age groups (1-5 yr boys and girls and 10-16 yr adolescent girls) before vaccination and draw strategies for future vaccination programme. METHODS: A total of 300 blood samples were collected by vein puncture from girls and boys of 1-5 yr age and adolescent girls of 10-16 yr age. Samples were tested for the presence of rubella specific IgG antibody by ELISA. RESULTS: Of the 300 samples tested, 145 (48.3%) were negative for rubella IgG antibodies. The seronegativity was 82.2 per cent in 1-5 yr and 13.5 per cent in the 10-16 yr age groups, the difference was statistically significant (P<0.001). INTERPRETATION & CONCLUSION: Large percentage of children, 82.2 per cent in the 1-5 yr age group and 13.5 per cent in 10-16 yr population were susceptible to rubella infection highlighting the fact that there was a risk of congenital rubella syndrome. There is a need to implement routine measles, mumps, rubella (MMR) immunization programme for under five children and mass scale one time immunization with monovalent rubella vaccine for adolescent girls.

Seroprevalence of rubella IGG and IGM antibodies in infants suspected of having rubella infection

This study was conducted to assess clinical and laboratory screening for suspected congenital rubella syndrome [CRS] and to evaluate the efficacy of reporting of CRS cases at the Children's Hospital and the Institute of Child Health. A total of 100 infants suspected of having rubella infection were included in the study. Rubella titer was used as an indicator. Enzyme linked immunosorbent assay was performed to detect rubella specific IgM and IgG. The data was analyzed on infants 'birth weight, infants' clinical characteristics and laboratory evaluation. The study shows that out of 100 Infants, only three [3%] met the definition for confirmed rubella whereas thirty-four patients were positive for Rubella IgG only. Ninety-seven other children had clinical presentation that met the definition for a probable case but when they were tested for Rubella specific IgM antibodies, the tests were negative. Rubella IgG positive patients were further categorized on the basis of their age; 33 [97%] infants were of less than six months and only 1 [3%] infant was of more than six months. Average age of the patients was 2.2 months [SD +/- 1.55]. The common clinical presentations in rubella positive patients [n=3] were failure to thrive [100%], cataract [67%], patent ductus arteriosus [67%], microcephaly [67%], intracranial calcification [33%], buphthalamus [33%], and hepatosplenomegaly [67%]. With regard to hematological abnormalities in the three rubella confirmed cases, three had anemia [loon two infants had thrombocytopenia [67%], and only one infant had leucopenia [33.3%]. The relatively high rate of susceptibility indicated a risk of a rubella outbreak, and the resulting. Congenital rubella syndrome is an under-recognized public health problem in Pakistan and can be reduced by vaccinating all seronegative women. There is an urgent need for the collection of appropriate data to estimate the cost effectiveness of a potential Rubella Control Programme

Diagnóstico etiológico de pacientes con exantemas o cuadros febriles atendidos en 1998. Estado Zulia, Venezuela / Laboratory diagnosis of patients with exanthematic or febrile syndromes occurring in the Zulia State, Venezuela, during 1998

BACKGROUND: Exanthematic diseases are a group of syndromes mainly caused by acute viral infections. AIM: To obtain information about the viruses that cause exanthematic diseases in our region. PATIENTS AND METHODS: During 1998, 267 serum samples from patients with an acute rash or patients presenting a febrile syndrome accompanied by enlarged lymph nodes, headache and other symptoms, were collected. Specific antibody of the IgM class (anti-IgM) against Rubella, Measles, Dengue types 1-4 and Cytomegalovirus (CMV) were measured by immunoenzymatic assay (EIA). Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) antibodies were measured by immunofluorescence. RESULTS: An etiologic agent was detected in 208 cases (77.9%). Cases due to Dengue (40.6%) and Rubella (21%) viruses predominated, but the frequency of other agents was also high in specific age groups. The agreement between the clinical suspicion and the laboratory findings varied broadly, from a 100% for suspected Dengue to just a 14.8% for cases of suspected CMV infection. CONCLUSIONS: Dengue was the most common viral exanthematic disease in the Zulia State during 1998.

Prevalence of rubella antibodies among schoolgirls in Sana'a, Republic of Yemen

To determine the prevalence of rubella antibodies and age of exposure to rubella among Yemeni schoolgirls, we studied the sera samples of 323 female students [age range 11-21 years; mean age 16.26 +/- 1.89 years] drawn from three schools in Sana'a. All samples were screened for rubella IgG antibodies using enzyme linked immunosorbent assay and, if negative, for IgM in order to exclude the possibility of recent exposure. Of 323 sera, 296 [91.64%] were positive for rubella IgG. All IgG negative sera were also IgM negative. Comparable antibody prevalence was observed in all age groups. The prevalence of rubella IgG among Yemeni schoolgirls is high, with most becoming immune between the ages of 11 and 21 years. Although the age of exposure seems to be

Laboratory diagnosis of congenital and maternal rubella infection: a review.

Physicians are aware of the congenital rubella syndrome. Serodiagnosis is usually used to detect rubella infection in pregnant women and their fetuses. Although being considered the cornerstone of serodiagnosis, the hemagglutination inhibition test is gradually being replaced by new more convenient methods. Tests to detect IgM eliminate the need for paired sera to diagnose acute rubella infection. However, because of the possibilities of false positive, IgM results should be interpreted with caution. Detection of IgM in cord blood and new genetic technology made the diagnosis of infection in utero possible. The evidence of reinfection in people considered to be immune is abundant; however, discovering new antigenic determinants correlating with immunity may solve the problem and a new vaccine and antibody test that is truly associated with immunity will be available in the future.

Need for protection against rubella in India.

Reports from different parts of India highlight the existence of Rubella leading to fetal malformations and wastage. However, the need for routine immunization to control rubella has not been duly recognized. In the present study the prevalence of rubella was determined in different age groups of the population by estimating IgG antibodies to rubella virus using ELISA kit obtained from Diamedix. Two hundred and seventy four pairs of maternal blood samples were collected. Samples were also obtained from one hundred and thirty nine children aged 1-15 years and assayed for rubella antibodies. The sample was read as positive if the Elisa unit/ml was 15 EU/ml. The results showed that 94.9% of mothers and 94.1% of cord blood samples showed seropositivity. Children between 1 and 5 years showed the lowest seropositivity of 69.2% which gradually increased to reach near 95% levels by 15 years. These observations indicate the prevalence of rubella in children and thus suggest the need to protect susceptible women of reproductive age group.